Nature Skills

Coexistence with Nature

Under construction

The notes still need to be organized.

Photos need to be added

This page will dedicated to the practice of wilderness living, now there are many way to categorize this topic such as; Bush craft, nature skill, prim living skills, wilderness survival and so and so on

BOOKS 

Hamlyn Guide , Tracks, Trails & Signs  Laurence, Brown Pope

Colins Guide, Wild Animals, Helga Hofman

“Cedar”, Hilary Stewart

Wildwood Wisdom, Ellsworth Jaeger

Wild Earth Adventures : bushcraft in BC

 Outdoor Living Skills

1.  methods of making flame

1. Chemical

• Potassium permanganate + glycerie (in antifreeze)

- On tissue paper – burn on contact

- Or on hay – burns very easy

• Potassium permanganate + sugar granules

• Modificated matches (waxed paper)

• Wind-proof matches (different chemicals)

1. Sparks

• Iron Pyronite (ancestors) + flint
• 2 pieces of flint, sparks go up, then put tinder
• Flint + steel, works when wet !
• Fire starter (secret Mg++)

• Knife
• Razor blade
• Flint
• Vaseline + cottonwood (Manmade tinder)
• Supports :

• Fongi (amadu, fund on beech tree in northern Europe) 
• Or charcoal cloth cause very limited oxygen supply cause it retains the carbon

1. Solar

• Reflector (has to be convex and you hold it to the sun)

1. Compression

• Compressed fire-piston

Compresses the molecules together and inflames what is into the tube

1. Electrical

• Battery (muss have a double terminal)

1. Friction

• Bow drill 

Take the outbark from a standing dead tree (same or different wood)

 The proprieties of natural and manmade tinder 

• Extenders (made to help the tender to start) : 

• Pine resine 
• Willow herb (=cotton)
• Cattail
• Cottongrass
• Clematis

•  Natural Tinder :

• Hay
• Innerbark :

• Lime
• Wester cedar
• Elm
• Willow
• Sweet chestnuts
• Polar
• Cherry oak

• Outbark :

• Beechbark

• True Tender Fungi                                                           

On oak or poplar

• Herbaceous material
• Shavings
• Fungi  (Amadu or  Crap or Horse Hoof) 
• Seed heads

• Manmade Tinder :  

• Rubber (good to burn but bad on CH) 
• Wax paper

1.  3 main fire lays 

1. Starfire 

Very calorific, you can put big logs but needs constant maintenance (Note, you can put a criss cross fire on it and then cook on it)

1. Criss Cross fire

Built in layers , good to cook because produces a lot of amber/charcoal

1. V fire

Can be done on a plate-form (as criss cross base)

To hang a pot by exemple. Also in exposed places with much wind

Avantage : the fire can be left, cause it self-feeds

Disaventage : you cannot cook on it

• A fire needs :

• Heat
• Oxygene
• Fuel
• Height

1.   Water 

The body consists of 60 to 70% water and is used to remove waste, toxins, digesting food and taking water to the rest of the body.

It is apparent and obvious how important water is, it helps the body to function, our bodies are 60 to 70% water it assists in the digestion of food, the body perspires to remove toxins, moves nutrients  and oxygen though our bloodstream from our heart to the rest of the body-muscle and skeleton and of which feeds the brian and allows our nervous system to operate normally,  it is all so need to control the temperature by the way of perspiring, so it is very important to stay hydrated, there are also other ways to consume water other then drinking it like eating fruits and certain vegetables.

• It is used to regulate temperature.
• for the brian and nervous system water builds the ion necessary  to the nervous system, 82% of our brian is made of water which transmits the nervous influx 
• body volume and heart function
• muscular and skeletal mechanics

The symptoms and effects of dehydration

A small reduction can lead to serious effects if not treated  .

From 1 to 5% water loss this your body will begin to experience some minor  problems, thirst is not always a good inductor depending on the climate and conditions, Slight pre-flu like symptom can be a induction as well as headaches, which means the brian and nervous system are affect., and nausea well this can turn serious if you begin to vomit, because this will increases your water loss and in this case losing up to 6 to 20% WATER is the beginning of some serious problems and can be fatal.

You will experience dizziness a reduction in urine and saliva, the body will begin to conserve water, arms a legs will tingle which means the  nervous system is effected even more so, dry tongue, crack lips and Cyanosis a blue tinge to skin, lips and nails, all theses symptoms can lead to other more serious  states; delirium, incoherence, disorientation, joint spasms and one of the last affects before a state of comatose and death is deafness, vision dimming a late symptom and coma.     

At 1-5% loss of total body weight

• Thirst is not  always a reliable indication in some climates
• Slight discomfort, aches and pains and pre flu like symptoms
• Felling Nauseous  can be serious if followed by vomiting and this will increase water loss.
• Headaches, brains a nervous system affected.

At 6 - 10% water loss....

• Dizziness, brian and nervous system affected
• Oliguria, unable to urinate and this should be a minimum of one pint (0.47 liters) a day. urine is dark and should be a light straw like color.
• Tingling of arms and legs,nervous system is affected.
• Absences of saliva, the body saves water by withdrawing it from the mucous membranes of which can cause mouth sores, dry tongue and cracked lips 
• Cyanosis, blue tinge of the skin.lips and nails. 

11 to 20% water loss...

• Delirium. incoherence, disorientation.
• Spasticity, joints held in spasm and unnatural positions
• Deafness
• Dimming of vision is a late symptom
• Coma and death

Commonly occurring water indicators.

In pursuit of clarity and purity.

All waters  have some kind of impurities whether it be man-made or natural as we may see it or suggest it to be, in its natural state of which today maybe hard to come across, so coldness, clarity where it comes from or how long one may have been drinking it from its natural source is no indicator of purity, Snow and ice are no purer then the water from which they come.

There are a few place’s to find water such as Shelving coves, cliff base’s also at the base of gullies or behind rocks and tree buttresses, collecting or digging for water under where many poisonous plants grow is not a good place for obvious reasons,(first you must be able to recognize poisonous plants) while digging you may open up a root and expose it and this could contaminate your water, as I have come to realize that the studying of the contours and the way  the land is laid out naturally and to understand this completely, and that, this is a very important knowledge to acquire when in search for water, so there are three basic categories to start with, finding it, filtering it, and purifying it for its many use’s

 Obtaining water falls in to three basic categories

- Finding IT, 

- Filtering it, 

- And making it safe to use.

It may occur and find it:

- Behind rocks and tree buttresses

- At the base of gullies

• At the base cliffs
• Above the high tide mark in shelving coves where water drains to the sea from surrounding land.

Kinds of water you may come across.

The earth is 70.9% water and most of it is ocean and this can be considered  saline water, spring water can also be saline water if it comes up from a source in the ground, which can also contain sulfur, the source would be of an underground volcanic activity, all spring water doesn't necessary come from that  source, it can be “fresh drinkable water” and may flow the all year round ( Artesian springs) or only at certain periods of the year or time of a season like rain, melting snow and ice. Water can also be found on leaves and other places in the form of dew, in many regions of the world the water is in a constant flow, it travels between areas of the earth throw a water cycle.

 But only a small portion of the earths water is freshwater, which is found in rivers, lakes, plants, trees and even animals, digging hole in what appears to be and empty or dry stream,brook or gully may work and your hole just may fill with water from the water that is trapped in the ground around it, one could also build a simple water still to obtain water using plastic,but  this may take up to 24 hours to gather.

Certain Life forms maybe a good indicator of water nearby, like cranes, at a certain times of the day they may fly towards its source of water, insect like mosquitos and certain species of dragonfly and amphibians can suggest that water is very close, because they lay the eggs in water, Hemlock, willow and the common Alder maybe good indicators of water near by and also In certain regions that still have bears and elk. 

Otters and muskrat because of the fresh vegetation and water, one may easily find water if they learn to read and pay attention to the signs that nature is offering, keeping an open way to communicate with her will  help you to sustain your life and to also have pleasant and heathy co-existing relationship.

Types of standing water:

• Springs
• Rain
• Dew
• Snow and ice
• Saline water

Other source of water

• Planets and trees
• Animals 
• Solar stills
• Digging 

The purpose and importance of filtering and filter systems

Suspended Matter

IT is important to filter out the suspended matter, such as organisms or parasites  that hide in the sediment  and who shells are resistant to treatment, the matter may cause your stomach lining to be irritated and you could become sick, if possible use fabric this will trap the particles, sediment and other parasites or you can improvise a system using moss,sand and charcoal in a plastic container with an open top and hole pierced in the bottom or tree bark in the shape of a cone.

The impotence of a filter system is that it will trap most of the contaminants that are larger then a tightly woven fabric such as cotton bags, mill bank, or ceramic filters or a natural 3 layer filter system and then you can bring it to the next stage of purifying it, which would be boiling it. 

Failure to filter water may result in:

• Suspended matter irritating the stomach lining
• Harmful organisms effectively hiding in the sediment resisting treatment
• Failure to stop parasitic cysts with hard treatment resistant shells

Filtration Methods:

In emergency situation filter may have to be improvised from anything close at hand. Even running the water though an improvised filter of trouser/pants material or a few shirts will do, the tighter the fabric weave the better. filters can also be improvised from nature using layers of moss, sand and charcoal in tube formed from and old bottle or roll of bark.

Pre made filters can be carried in the form of tightly woven cotton bags, mill bank bag or ceramic filters.

Methods of water purification:

assess, judge, gauge, rate, estimate, appraise, analyze, examine, get the measure of; informal size up, check out.

A Heat treatment such as boiling the water to would be the best and the most efficient and sufficient, chemical treatments can be an alternative, there smal and take up very little space

Making it safe to use

• Heat treatment:

Bring water to a rolling boil for one minute will kill most of the water borne pathogens, this may very depending on what region and elevation you are at, this method will require you to pay attention to how you are handling the water and how you treat your containers, always use a metal container to purify, one can easily contaminate the containers by using the ones that have been use to collect the water so always when in doubt, purify the container on an open fire.

Heat kills microorganisms, and virtually all enteropathogens are readily killed at temperatures well below the boiling point. The process of heating water to a boil makes it hot enough long enough to disinfect it,  

Bringing water to a boil is adequate for disinfection.

• Chemical Treatments;

Chemical disinfection of water depends on the killing of bacteria, Giardia and amoeba cysts, and viruses by the chemical. Halogens (chlorine and iodine) are most commonly used. The important points are that the killing effectiveness of the chemical is dependent on concentration of the chemical, temperature of the water, and contact time. Decreased concentration (better flavor) or decreased temperature requires a longer contact time for disinfection.

Chlorine has been used for several centuries for water disinfection. The most common objection to it is the flavor, though there have been some suggestions that it is unreliable in killing Giardia cysts in the commonly used concentrations.

Clean drinking water is one of the most important issues we face every day…whether we are in an emergency situation or simply in every day life. We can go about 3 weeks without food but only 3 days without water.

People consider the issue of water purification primarily for emergency situations but any water you drink these days (including even tap & bottled water) the question of whether or not it is pure clean water and safe to drink will come into play.

Using chlorine or hydrogen peroxide to purify water may kill the bacteria in the water but it doesn’t actually make it safe to drink. These chemicals are quite toxic to the human body and cause all sorts of internal problems.

Did you know:

Chlorinated water can destroy polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E in the body while generating toxins capable of free radical damage (oxidation). This might explain why supplementation of the diet with essential fatty acids like flax seed oil, evening primrose oil, borage oil and antioxidants like vitamin E, selenium and others helps so many cases of eczema and dry skin.

Chlorinated water destroys much of the intestinal flora, the friendly bacteria that help in the digestion of food and which protects the body from harmful pathogens. These bacteria are also responsible for the manufacture of several important vitamins like vitamin B12 and vitamin K. Killing beneficial intestinal flora can lead to yeast infections, candida, and leaky gut.

It is also not uncommon for chronic skin conditions like acne, psoriasis, seborrhea and eczema to clear up or to be significantly improved by switching to unchlorinated drinking water and supplementing the diet with lactobacillus acidophilus and bifidus.

Chlorinated water contains chemical compounds called trihalomethanes which are carcinogens resulting from the combination of chlorine with compounds in water. These chemicals, also known as organochlorides, do not degrade very well and are generally stored in the fatty tissues of the body (breast, other fatty areas, mother’s milk, blood and semen). Organochlorides can cause mutations by altering DNA, suppress immune system function and interfere with the natural controls of cell growth.

Chlorine has been documented to aggravate asthma, especially in those children who make use of chlorinated swimming pools.

Several studies also link chlorine and chlorinated by-products to a greater incidence of bladder, breast and bowel cancer as well as malignant melanoma. One study even links the use of chlorinated tap water to congenital cardiac anomalies.

Iodine has been used to disinfect water for nearly a century. It has advantages over chlorine in convenience and probably efficacy; many travelers find the taste less offensive as well. It appears safe for short and intermediate length use (3-6 months), but questions remain about its safety in long-term usage. It should not be used by persons with allergy to iodine, persons with active thyroid disease, or pregnant women.

Note that Iodine and other halogens appear to be relatively ineffective at killing cyclospora, a troublesome diarrhea-causing bacteria. it may be reasonable to pre-filter water to remove the large cyclospora (about the size of Giardia cysts), and then treating with iodine.

Iodine is available in numerous forms,

There are several other ways to chemically treat water such as Oxygenate which will allow you to store water for up to 5  years and can be used for medical . neutralizing, Silver, Micro filtration Combination filter and chemical treatment and ultraviolet.

Common water borne diseases and contaminants 

• Viruses
• Bacteria 
• Protozoa

As I have found the are a few diseases that contaminate the water.

Waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms that most commonly are transmitted in contaminated fresh water. Various forms of waterborne diarrheal disease probably are the most prominent. Micro-organisms  causing diseases that characteristically are waterborne, prominently include  protozoa and  bacteria, many of which are  intestinal parasites, or invade the tissues or circulatory system through walls of the digestive tract. Various other waterborne diseases are caused by viruses.

Yet other important classes of water-borne diseases are caused by metazoan  parasites. Typical examples include certain Nematoda , that is to say "roundworms". As an example of water-borne Nematode infections, one important waterborne nematodal disease is Dracunculiasis . It is acquired by swallowing water in which certain copepoda  occur that act as vectors for the Nematoda. Anyone swallowing a copepod that happens to be infected with Nematode larvae   in the genus Dracunculus  becomes liable to infection. The larvae cause guinea worm disease.

Another class of waterborne metazoan pathogens are certain members of the  Schistosomatidae a family of blood flukes  They usually infect victims that make skin contact with the water. Blood flukes are pathogens that cause schistosoniasis  of various forms, more or less seriously affecting hundreds of millions of people world-wide.

We can’t tell whether fresh water it is safe to drink by looking at it. Unless, for example, the water is obviously stagnant, dirty or oily we cannot visually determine the presence of some of the potential contaminants. Even if the water looks clean, it may be contaminated.

We can find that most uncertainty about how to treat water, but this comes from a lack of clarity over what the problems might be. This is due, at least in part, to the marketing surrounding the many water-purification products aimed at the outdoors user.

The better your understanding of the potential contaminants, the better equipped you will be in determining the solution. Don’t be baffled by scientific terminology or over-technical marketing hype.

There are five categories of contaminants you may need to eliminate from fresh water to make it safe to drink:

Turbidity

Parasites

Bacteria

Viruses

Chemical pollutants

Wilderness Water Purification: Useful Detail

Turbidity: Turbid water is muddy, thick or cloudy. This can be due to sand, mud, silt or other suspended particulate matter such as decomposing organic material. Removal of turbidity is important. Even if there are no waterborne diseases present, turbid water can irritate your digestive system. In addition, turbidity can reduce the effectiveness of chemical treatments.

Parasites are organisms that live in or on another organism, benefiting at the expense of the other. Waterborne parasites can be either multi-cellular organisms such as worms or simple, single-cell organisms such as protozoa.

Protozoa are colorless microbial organisms, capable of motion. They obtain food by ingesting other organisms or organic particles. Protozoa lack the cell walls of algae and fungi and in this respect resemble animal cells. Many protozoa are free-living microorganisms, but several cause disease in humans and other animals. Protozoa are typically 0.01-0.05mm in diameter. Examples include Cryptosporidium and Giardia

Bacteria are a large group of single-cell organisms, some of which cause disease, between them producing a wide range of infections, some of them potentially lethal. Bacteria are widely distributed in soil, water, air, and on, or in, the tissues of plants or animals. Bacteria were first observed in the 17th century and first definitely implicated in a disease (anthrax) in 1876. Typically a few micrometers across (micrometer or ‘micron’ is one millionth of a metre), bacteria are much smaller than protozoa. Examples of diseases caused by bacteria include Typhoid fever.

Viruses are not cells. Viruses lack many of the attributes of cells. A single virus particle is a static structure, quite stable, and unable to change or replace its parts. Only when it is associated with a cell does a virus acquire a key attribute of a living system, reproduction. Many viruses cause disease in the organisms they infect. While protozoa are measured in terms of thousandths of a metre and bacteria are measured in millions of a metre, viruses are measured in terms of billions of a metre (nano). Many causes of ‘traveller’s diarrhea’ are considered the result of infection by waterborne viruses. More serious diseases such as Hepatitis A and Polio have long been known to result from fecal contamination of water.

Chemical pollutants can range from pesticides to heavy metals. Chemical pollution in wilderness areas and national parks are often associated with nearby mining, forestry and agriculture.

Other Terminology

A pathogenic organism is any organism that causes disease. That is, as far as waterborne disease is concerned, could be protozoa, bacteria or virus.

Some microorganisms (such as Giardia lamblia) can form cysts, which allow the organism to live without food, water or oxygen for a period of time. The cyst protects the organism from harsh conditions, allowing it to be much more resistant to drying, heat, chemicals, mechanical disturbance such as crushing or vibration, UV and ionizing radiation than the unprotected organism. For parasitic species, the cyst will also enable it to survive outside of the host.

Use Common Sense and Research

In a wilderness or remote travel situation, it is unusual to have to deal with all five types of contaminant at the same time. Use common sense and research to find out what you are likely to be facing.

We can see turbidity and it can be removed with coarse filtration.

Dead fish and vegetation are clear signs of serious chemical pollution. Chemical pollution is often less extreme than this, however, and the signs much more subtle. With a little bit of pre-trip research we can judge if we are visiting an area where chemical pollutants may be an issue (for example will you be near sulphide mining, or is there a lot of agriculture up river?).

The presence of waterborne pathogens is often associated with the presence of humans and domesticated animals (and their excreta contaminating the water). In many places where there has been little or no human activity and no livestock or pack animals, then the water can be free of pathogenic organisms and safe to drink. But remember we can’t know for sure without testing the water.

Even if the locals drink the water, remember that they may well have been doing it for years and have an acquired immunity to pathogenic organisms we may never have encountered before.

Pre-trip research will also help you determine which waterborne pathogens are possible, likely or endemic in the country you are travelling through. This type of research can easily be combined with determining which inoculations, if any, you require before a trip.

How to Deal with Water Contaminants

There are methods of dealing with each of turbidity, parasites, bacteria, viruses and chemical pollutants.

No single method, however, will provide satisfactory treatment for all of these contaminants. Further, there are many water purification products on the market which make use of some of these methods. This proliferation of products along with marketing tends to create some confusion amongst potential users as to which method is “best”. The best solution depends on the circumstances.

Here, I’ve gone back to first principles.

To keep things as clear as possible, the important points you need to remember are as follows:

Coarse filtration will remove turbidity;

Micro-filtration will remove the larger pathogenic organisms (protozoa and some bacteria);

Boiling will kill all pathogenic organisms (at any altitude);

Certain types of filtration (activated carbon) can remove some chemical pollutants;

Some chemical treatments (chlorine, iodine) will kill many pathogenic organisms (in particular bacteria and viruses), while other treatments (chlorine dioxide) will deactivate all of them.

Hence, you will be able to deduce that a combination of filtration and a suitable chemical treatment or boiling will deal with any or all of the specific contaminants. If you understand these fundamental principles, then you can start to make an informed judgement, free from the influence of marketing, and adopt a solution that best fits the circumstances.

 Filter, and make water safe. 

Find water: At the base of gullies or what appears to be a dry water bed like ponds, streams, brooks or river, alder is a good indicator for water usually you can dig under or next to  it or if the alder trees are in a line this could mean there is a stream of water, Underground spring water that come to the surface, streams that come down from a mountain, rivers and lakes

There would be few methods, you could filter though a tight woven clothe, like A BANk MILL BAG, a few cotton t-shirts or a pare of pants/trousers or use a micro ceramic filter. Heat the water to rolling boil or even boil for one minute like some expert suggest, when you filtered water be sure the the container you catch the water in sterilized if you dont the water will be contaminated once agian,

And let water stand till it cools, one other way is the use chlorine tablets and let shake and let stand for one hour.

Three layer natural filter system can be used: in plastic tube or a piece of bark in the shape of a cone or cylinder or any thing that could make a cylinder shape with 3 equal parts of sand moss and charcoal each about 5 centimeter thick.

To increase your chances of finding water, look for the following:

· Valleys and low areas are places where water naturally drains.

· Rock crevices. Rainwater may have been collected.

· Muddy or damp ground.

· Patches of green vegetation indicate water of some sort.

· Places where animal tracks converge, maybe a water source nearby?

· Insects, as they often stay close to water.

· Birds, as they will often circle a watering hole.

How to keep water from becoming impure and manage water.

Handling water

Treated or purified water can can become impure by using the same container that you use to collect the water it needs to be sterilized on a open camp fire before using it to contain treated water.

Always carry two containers a primary and a secondary of one liter each if you like it can be more then one liter maybe two liters. by example: one container or water bladder that contains your collected untreated water ( the Secondary)and this container can be used to store untreated water for future use, it needs to be as clean and clear as possible, this water can be used for cooking and hot drinks and washing, any left over water from this containment can be used to top off the treated or purified water, because it has been boiled already, so therefore purified.

your primary container will contain purified water only and this can be used as on going drinking water though out the day and you will have to replenish this water and utilize an adequate  treatment system to purify the water.

 The causes, symptoms and treatment of heat an cold injuries

 The causes symptoms and treatment of heat and cold injuries.

There are many types of cold injuries but here I will mention two Hyothermia and frostbit, the causes of these can be exposer to cold to extreme cold weather, getting wet or being submerged into water,  exposer to wind rain and or your own sweat can lead to sever hypothermia or frost-nip and frostbite.

We loss heat by radiation,conduction,convection evaporation and respiration. 

For hypothermia the symptoms are many depending on what stage a person is in, the beginning symptoms are mumbling stumbling fumbling and grumbling. 

Mild hypothermia: shivering unable to do complex motor skills, temperature drops just below 98.6 / 37 CELSIUS to 96 / 35.55  degrees.

Moderate Hypothermia:  Dazed consciousness, Loss of fine motor coordination,

Slurred speech, Violent shivering Irrational behavior  "I don't care attitude" 

temperature drops to 95.6 / 35.33 to 93 / 33.88  degrees.

Sever Hypothermia:- core temperature 92 / 33.33 - 86 / 30 degrees and below (immediately life threatening) Shivering occurs in waves, Person falls to the ground, can't walk, curls up into a fetal position to conserve heat, Muscle rigidity develops Skin is pale, Pupils dilate, Pulse rate decreases,at 90 degrees the body tries to move into hibernation, shutting down all peripheral blood flow and reducing breathing rate and heart rate. at 86 degrees the body is in a state of "metabolic icebox." The person looks dead but is still alive.

Death from Hypothermia, Breathing becomes erratic and very shallow, Semi-conscious, Cardiac arrhythmia's develop, any sudden shock may set off Ventricular Fibrillation, Heart stops, death.

The treatment can also very depending on the stage of hypothermia, for mild to moderate ,  Additional layers of clothing, Dry clothing, Increased physical activity and put the victim in a  Shelter. It is essential to keep a hypothermic person adequately hydrated and fueled.

For severe Hypothermia Reduce Heat Loss by using Hypothermia Wrap: The idea is to provide a shell of total insulation for the patient. No matter how cold, patients can still internally rewarm themselves much more efficiently than any external rewarming. Make sure the patient is dry, and minimize sweating on the skin. The person must be protected from any moisture in the environment. Use multiple sleeping bags, wool blankets, wool clothing, create a minimum of 4" of insulation all the way around the patient, especially between the patient and the ground. Include an aluminum "space" blanket to help prevent radiant heat loss, and wrap the entire ensemble in plastic to protect from wind and water. If someone is truly hypothermic, don't put him/her naked in a sleeping bag with another person, add fual and fliids like warm sugar water and allow the patient to urinate urinating will help conserve heat.

Frost-nip

Freezing of top layers of skin tissue, It is generally reversible,White, waxy skin, top layer feels hard, rubbery but deeper tissue is still soft,Numbness

Most typically seen on cheeks, earlobes, fingers, and toes

Treatment

Rewarm the area gently, generally by blowing warm air on it or placing the area against a warm body part (partner's stomach or armpit),Do not rub the area this can damage the effected tissue by having ice crystals tear the cell

Frostbite

Skin is white and "wooden" feel all the way through, Superficial frostbite includes all layers of skin, Numbness, possible anesthesia, Deep frostbite can include freezing of muscle and/or bone, it is very difficult to rewarm the, appendage without some damage occurring

Treatment

Superficial frostbite may be rewarmed as frostnip if only a small area is involved

If deep frostbite, see below for rewarming technique

Types of Cold Injuries

*Hypothermia

*Frostbite

Chilblains

Immersion/Trench Foot

Dehydration

Constipation

Sunburn

Snow Blindness

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

CAUSES:

• Temperature
• Wet ( rain sweat and water)
• Wind (movement of it or you though it)

These causes can lead to mild moderate and sever hypothermia and frost bite.

The symptoms: mumbling stumbling fumbling and grumbling 

Mild  hypothermia 

- shivering

• cant do complex motor skills

Moderate Hypothermia

- Dazed consciousness

• Loss of fine motor coordination
• Slurred speech
• Violent shivering

- Irrational behavior 

"I don't care attitude" 

- temperature drops to 95.6 to 93  degrees

Severe Hypothermia 

- core temperature 92 - 86 degrees and below (immediately life threatening)

• Shivering occurs in waves, 

- Person falls to the ground, can't walk, curls up into a fetal position to conserve heat

- Muscle rigidity develops Skin is pale

- Pupils dilate

- Pulse rate decreases

- at 90 degrees the body tries to move into hibernation, shutting down all peripheral blood flow and reducing breathing rate and heart rate.

• at 86 degrees the body is in a state of "metabolic icebox." 
• The person looks dead but is still alive.

Death from Hypothermia

- Breathing becomes erratic and very shallow

- Semi-conscious

- Cardiac arrhythmia's develop, any sudden shock may set off Ventricular Fibrillation

• Heart stops, death

How to Assess if someone is Hypothermic

- If shivering can be stopped voluntarily = mild hypothermia

• Ask the person a question that requires higher reasoning in the brain (count backwards from 100 by 9's). If the person is hypothermic, they won't be able to do it. 

[Note: there are also other conditions such as altitude sickness that can also cause the same condition.]

- If shivering cannot be stopped voluntarily = moderate - severe hypothermia

- -f you can't get a radial pulse at the wrist it indicates a core temp below 90 - 86 degrees

• The person may be curled up in a fetal position. Try to open their arm up from the fetal position, if it curls back up, the person is alive. Dead muscles won't contract only live muscles.

Stage	Core Temperature	Signs & Symptoms
Mild Hypothermia	99º - 97ºF	Normal, shivering can begin
	97º - 95ºF	Cold sensation, goose bumps, unable to perform complex tasks with hands, shiver can be mild to severe, hands numb
Moderate Hypothermia	95º - 93ºF	Shivering, intense, muscle incoordination becomes apparent, movements slow and labored, stumbling pace, mild confusion, may appear alert. Use sobriety test, if unable to walk a 30 foot straight line, the person is hypothermic.
	93º - 90ºF	Violent shivering persists, difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, amnesia starts to appear, gross muscle movements sluggish, unable to use hands, stumbles frequently, difficulty speaking, signs of depression, withdrawn.
Severe Hypothermia	90º - 86ºF	Shivering stops, exposed skin blue of puffy, muscle coordination very poor, inability to walk, confusion, incoherent/irrational behavior, but may be able to maintain posture and appearance of awareness
	86º - 82ºF	Muscle rigidity, semiconscious, stupor, loss of awareness of others, pulse and respiration rate decrease, possible heart fibrillation
	82º - 78ºF	Unconscious, heart beat and respiration erractic, pulse may not be palpable
	78º - 75ºF	Pulmonary edema, cardiac and respiratory failure,death. Death may occur before this temperature is reached.

Treating Hypothermia

The basic principles of rewarming a hypothermic victim are to conserve the heat they have and replace the body fuel they are burning up to generate that heat. If a person is shivering, they have the ability to rewarm themselves at a rate of 2 degrees C per hour.

Mild - Moderate Hypothermia

1. Reduce Heat Loss

- Additional layers of clothing

- Dry clothing

- Increased physical activity

- Shelter

2. Add Fuel & Fluids

It is essential to keep a hypothermic person adequately hydrated and fueled.

a. Food types

- Carbohydrates - 5 calories/gram - quickly released into blood stream for sudden brief heat surge - these are the best to use for quick energy intake especially for mild cases of hypothermia

- Proteins - 5 calories/gram - slowly released - heat given off over a longer period

- Fats - 9 calories/gram - slowly released but are good because they release heat over a long period, however, it takes more energy to break fats down into glucose - also takes more water to break down fats leading to increased fluid loss

b. Food intake

- Hot liquids - calories plus heat source

- Sugars (kindling)

- GORP - has both carbohydrates (sticks) and protiens/fats (logs)

c. Things to avoid

- Alcohol - a vasodilator - increases peripheral heat loss

- Caffeine - a diuretic - causes water loss increasing dehydration

- Tobacco/nicotine - a vasoconstrictor, increases risk of frostbite

3. Add Heat

- Fire or other external heat source

- Body to body contact. Get into a sleeping back, in dry clothing with a normothermic person in lightweight dry clothing

Severe Hypothermia

1. Reduce Heat Loss

- Hypothermia Wrap: The idea is to provide a shell of total insulation for the patient. No matter how cold, patients can still internally rewarm themselves much more efficiently than any external rewarming. Make sure the patient is dry, and has a polypropylene layer to minimize sweating on the skin. The person must be protected from any moisture in the environment. Use multiple sleeping bags, wool blankets, wool clothing, Ensolite pads to create a minimum of 4" of insulation all the way around the patient, especially between the patient and the ground. Include an aluminum "space" blanket to help prevent radiant heat loss, and wrap the entire ensemble in plastic to protect from wind and water. If someone is truly hypothermic, don't put him/her naked in a sleeping bag with another person.

2. Add Fuel & Fluids

- Warm Sugar Water - for people in severe hypothermia, the stomach has shut down and will not digest solid food but can absorb water and sugars. Give a dilute mixture of warm water with sugar every 15 minutes. Dilute Jello™ works best since it is part sugar and part protein. This will be absorbed directly into the blood stream providing the necessary calories to allow the person to rewarm themselves. One box of Jello = 500 Kilocalories of heat energy. Do not give full strength Jello even in liquid form, it is too concentrated and will not be absorbed.

Urination - people will have to urinate from cold diuresis. Vasoconstriction creates greater volume pressure in the blood stream. The kidneys pull off excess fluid to reduce the pressure. A full bladder results in body heat being used to keep urine warm rather than vital organs. Once the person has urinated, it precious body heat will be used to maintain the temperature of vital organs. So in the end urinating will help conserve heat. You will need to help the person urinate. Open up the Hypothermia Wrap enough to do this and then cover them back up. You will need to keep them hydrated with the dilute Jello solution described above.

3. Add Heat

- Heat can be applied to transfer heat to major arteries - at the neck for the carotid, at the armpits for the brachial, at the groin for the femoral, at the palms of the hands for the arterial arch.

Chemical heat packs such as the Heat Wave™ provides 110 degrees F for 6-10 hours.

Hot water bottles, warm rocks, towels, compresses

For a severely hypothermic person, rescue breathing can increase oxygen and provide internal heat.

After-drop

Is a situation in which the core temperature actually decreases during rewarming. This is caused by peripheral vessels in the arms and legs dilating if they are rewarmed. This dilation sends this very cold, stagnate blood from the periphery to the core further decreasing core temperature which can lead to death. In addition, this blood also is very acetic which may lead to cardiac arrythmias and death. Afterdrop can best be avoided by not rewarming the periphery. Rewarm the core only! Do not expose a severely hypothermic victim to extremes of heat.

CPR & Hypothermia

When a person is in severe hypothermia they may demonstrate all the accepted clinical signs of death:

- Cold

- Blue skin

- Fixed and dilated pupils

- No discernable pulse

- No discernable breathing

- Comatose & unresponsive to any stimuli

- Rigid muscles

But they still may be alive in a "metabolic icebox" and can be revived. You job as a rescuer is to rewarm the person and do CPR if indicated. A hypothermia victim is never cold and dead only warm and dead. During severe hypothermia the heart is hyperexcitable and mechanical stimulation (such as CPR, moving them or Afterdrop) may result in fibrillation leading to death. As a result CPR may be contraindicated for some hypothermia situations:

1. Make sure you do a complete assessment of heart rate before beginning CPR. Remember, the heart rate may be 2-3/minute and the breathing rate 1/30 seconds. Instituting cardiac compressions at this point may lead to life-threatening arrythmias. Check the carotid pulse for a longer time period (up to a minute) to ascertain if there is some slow heartbeat. Also, even though the heart is beating very slowly, it is filling completely and distributing blood fairly effectively. External cardiac compressions only are 20-30% effective. Thus, with its severely decreased demands, the body may be able to satisfy its circulatory needs with only 2-3 beats per minute. Be sure the pulse is absent before beginning CPR. You will need to continue to do CPR as you rewarm the person.

2. Ventilation may have stopped but respiration may continue - the oxygen demands for the body have been so diminished with hypothermia that the body may be able to survive for some time using only the oxygen that is already in the body. If ventilation has stopped, artificial ventilation may be started to increase available oxygen. In addition, blowing warm air into the persons lungs may assist in internal rewarming.

3. CPR Procedures

- Check radial pulse, between 91.4 and 86 degrees F this pulse disappears

- Check for carotid pulse - wait at least a full minute to check for very slow heartbeat

- If pulse but not breathing or slow breathing, give rescue breathing (also adds heat).

- If no discernible heartbeat begin CPR and be prepared to continue - persons with hypothermia have been given CPR for up to 3.5 hours and have recovered with no neurological damage.

- Begin active rewarming.

Cold Injuries

Tissue temperature in cold weather is regulated by two factors, the external temperature and the internal heat flow. All cold injuries described below are intimately connected with the degree of peripheral circulation. As peripheral circulation is reduced to prevent heat loss to the core these conditions are more likely to occur.

1. Factors influencing cold injuries

Low ambient temperature

Wind chill - increases rate of freezing dramatically

Moisture - wet skin freezes at a higher temp than dry

Insulation

Contact with metal or supercooled liquids (white gas)

Exposed skin

Vasodilation

Vasoconstriction

Previous cold injuries

Constricting garments

Local pressure

Cramped position

Body type

Dehydration

Women do better in cold than men (greater subcutaneous body fat)

Caloric intake

Diabetes, some medications

Alcohol

Caffeine, nicotine

2. Cold-induced Vasodilation - When a hand or foot is cooled to 59 degrees F, maximal vasoconstriction and minimal blood flow occur. If cooling continues to 50 degrees, vasoconstriction is interrupted by periods of vasodilation with an increase in blood and heat flow. This "hunting" response recurs in 5-10 minute cycles to provide some protection from cold. Prolonged, repeated exposure increases this response and offers some degree of acclimatization. Ex. Eskimos have a strong response with short intervals in between.

3. Pathophysiology of Tissue Freezing - As tissue begins to freeze, ice crystals are formed within the cells. As intracellular fluids freeze, extracellular fluid enters the cell and there is an increase in the levels of extracellular salts due to the water transfer. Cells may rupture due to the increased water and/or from tearing by the ice crystals. Do not rub tissue; it causes cell tearing from the ice crystals. As the ice melts there is an influx of salts into the tissue further damaging the cell membranes. Cell destruction results in tissue death and loss of tissue. Tissue can't freeze if the temperature is above 32 degrees F. It has to be below 28 degrees F because of the salt content in body fluids. Distal areas of the body and areas with a high surface to volume ratio are the most susceptible (e.g ears, nose, fingers and toes - this little rhyme should help remind you what to watch out for in yourself and others).

- Surface frostbite generally involves destruction of skin layers resulting in blistering and minor tissue loss. Blisters are formed from the cellular fluid released when cells rupture.

- Deep frostbite can involve muscle and bone

Cold Response

Mild Frostnip

Superficial Frostbite

Deep Frostbite

sensation

painful

may have sensation

numb

numb

feels

normal

normal

soft

hard

color

red

white

white

white

4. Cold Response

Circulation is reduce to the are to prevent heat loss.

The area may be pale, cold.

It may have sensation or be numb.

5. Frostnip

Freezing of top layers of skin tissue

It is generally reversible

White, waxy skin, top layer feels hard, rubbery but deeper tissue is still soft

Numbness

Most typically seen on cheeks, earlobes, fingers, and toes

Treatment

- Rewarm the area gently, generally by blowing warm air on it or placing the area against a warm body part (partner's stomach or armpit)

- Do not rub the area - this can damage the effected tissue by having ice crystals tear the cell

6. Frostbite

Skin is white and "wooden" feel all the way through

Superficial frostbite includes all layers of skin

Numbness, possible anesthesia

Deep frostbite can include freezing of muscle and/or bone, it is very difficult to rewarm the appendage without some damage occurring

Treatment

- Superficial frostbite may be rewarmed as frostnip if only a small area is involved

- If deep frostbite, see below for rewarming technique

Rewarming of Frostbite

Rewarming is accomplished by immersion of the effected part into a water bath of 105 - 110 degrees F. No hotter or additional damage will result. This is the temperature which is warm to your skin. Monitor the temperature carefully with a thermometer. Remove constricting clothing. Place the appendage in the water and continue to monitor the water temperature. This temperature will drop so that additional warm water will need to be added to maintain the 105 - 110 degrees. Do not add this warm water directly to the injury. The water will need to be circulated fairly constantly to maintain even temperature. The effected appendage should be immersed for 25 - 40 minutes. Thawing is complete when the part is pliable and color and sensation has returned. Once the area is rewarmed, there can be significant pain. Discontinue the warm water bath when thawing is complete.

Do not use dry heat to rewarm. It cannot be effectively maintained at 105 - 110 degrees and can cause burns further damaging the tissues.

Once rewarming is complete the injured area should be wrapped in sterile gauze and protected from movement and further cold.

Once a body part has been rewarmed it cannot be used for anything. Also it is essential that the part can be kept from refreezing. Refreezing after rewarming causes extensive tissue damage and may result in loss of tissue. If you cannot guarantee that the tissue will stay warm, do not rewarm it. Mountaineers have walked out on frozen feet to have them rewarmed after getting out with no tissue loss. Once the tissue is frozen the major harm has been done. Keeping it frozen will not cause significant additional damage.

Special Considerations for Frostbite

If the person is hypothermic and frostbitten, the first concern is core rewarming. Do not rewarm the frostbitten areas until the core temp approaches 96 degrees.

No alcohol - vasodilation may increase fluid buildup

No smoking - nicotine as a vasoconstrictor may increase chances for developing frostbite

Liquids such as white gas can "supercool" in the winter (drop below their freezing point but not freeze). White gas also evaporates quickly into the air. Spilling supercooled white gas on exposed skin leads to instant frostbite from evaporative cooling. Always were gloves when handling fuel.

Touching metal with bare skin can cause the moisture on your skin to freeze to the metal. (In really cold conditions, metal glasses frames can be a problem). When you pull away, you may leave a layer of skin behind. Don't touch metal with bare skin.

Trench Foot - Immersion Foot

Trench foot is a process similar to chillblains. It is caused by prolonged exposure of the feet to cool, wet conditions. This can occur at temperatures as high as 60 degrees F if the feet are constantly wet. This can happen with wet feet in winter conditions or wet feet in much warmed conditions (ex. sea kayaking). The mechanism of injury is as follows: wet feet lose heat 25x faster than dry, therefore the body uses vasoconstriction to shut down peripheral circulation in the foot to prevent heat loss. Skin tissue begins to die because of lack of oxygen and nutrients and due to buildup of toxic products. The skin is initially reddened with numbness, tingling pain, and itching then becomes pale and mottled and finally dark purple, grey or blue. The effected tissue generally dies and sluffs off. In severe cases trench foot can involve the toes, heels, or the entire foot. If circulation is impaired for > 6 hours there will be permanent damage to tissue. If circulation is impaired for > 24 hours the victim may lose the entire foot. Trench Foot cuases permanent damage to the circulatory system making the person more prone to cold related injuries in that area. A similar phenomenon can occur when hands are kept wet for long periods of time such as kayaking with wet gloves or pogies. The damage to the circulatory system is known as Reynaud's Phenomenon.

Treatment and Prevention of Trench foot

Includes careful washing and drying of the feet, gentle rewarming and slight elevation. Since the tissue is not frozen as in severe frostbite it is more susceptible to damage by walking on it. Cases of trench foot should not walk out; they should be evacuated by litter. Pain and itching are common complaints. Give Ibuprofen or other pain medication.

Prevention is the best approach to dealing with trench foot. Keep feet dry by wearing appropriate footwear. Check your feet regularly to see if they are wet. If your feet get wet (through sweating or immersion), stop and dry your feet and put on dry socks. Periodic air drying, elevation, and massage will also help. Change socks at least once a day and do not sleep with wet socks. Be careful of tight socks which can further impair peripheral circulation. Foot powder with aluminum hydroxide can help. High altitude mountaineers will put antiperspirant on their feet for a week before the trip. The active ingredient, aluminum hydroxide will keep your feet from sweating for up to a month and their are no confirmed contraindications for wearing antiperspirant. [Some studies have shown links between alumnium in the body and Alzheimers.] Vapor barrier socks may increase the possibility of trenchfoot. When you are active and you are wearing a vapor barrier sock, you must carefully monitor how you sweat. If you are someone who sweats a lot with activity, your foot and polypropylene liner sock may be totally soaked before the body shuts down sweating. Having this liquid water next to the skin is going to lead to increased heat loss. If you don’t sweat much, your body may shut down perspiration at the foot before it gets actually wet. This is when the vapor barrier system is working. You must experiment to determine if vapor barrier systems will work for you.

Chilblains

Caused by repeated exposure of bare skin to temperatures below 60 degrees

Redness and itching of the effected area

Particularly found on cheeks and ears, fingers and toes

Women and young children are the most susceptible

The cold exposure causes damage to the peripheral capillary beds, this damage is permanent and the redness and itching will return with exposure

11. Avoiding Frostbite and Cold related Injuries

"Buddy system" - keep a regular watch on each other's faces, cheeks, ears for signs of frostnip/frostbite

Keep a regular "self check" for cold areas, wet feet, numbness or anesthesia

If at any time you discover a cold injury, stop and rewarm the area (unless doing so places you at greater risk).

12. Eye Injuries

a. Freezing of Cornea

Caused by forcing the eyes open during strong winds without goggles

Treatment is very controlled, rapid rewarming e.g. placing a warm hand or compress over the closed eye. After rewarming the eyes must be completely covered with patches for 24 - 48 hours.

b. Eyelashes freezing together

- Put hand over eye until ice melts, then can open the eye

c. Snowblindness

Sunburn of the eyes

Prevention by wearing good sunglasses with side shields or goggles. Eye protection from sun is just as necessary on cloudy or overcast days as it is in full sunlight when you are on snow. Snow
blindness can even occur during a snow storm if the cloud cover is thin.

Symptoms

Occur 8-12 hours after exposure

Eyes feel dry and irritated, then feel as if they are full of sand, moving or blinking becomes extremely painful, exposure to light hurts the eyes, eyelids may swell, eye redness, and
excessive tearing

Treatment

- Cold compresses and dark environment

Do not rub eyes

HEAT INJURES 

There are many types of heat injury, ranging from mild heat cramps to life-threatening heat stroke.

In recent years, several professional and college athletes have died from heat stroke. Between 1995 and 2007, there were 31 deaths in the United States due to heat injury in high school football alone.

A growing number of children and young adults are playing sports during late summer and early fall. As more people exercise in warm conditions, proper precautions must be taken.

Heat injury is preventable. Prevention begins with understanding the causes of heat illness. Knowing the signs of heat injury and being able to treat it immediately will reduce the number of severe cases

Cause;

When we exercise, our bodies cool off by sweating. As we perspire, we lose necessary body fluids. If we do not replace these fluids, we become dehydrated. This makes it difficult to sweat and cool down, which can result in a heat injury.

During regular exercise, 70 to 90 percent of the energy our bodies produce is released by heat. Many factors can hinder heat release and perspiration. These include:

Environment. Air temperature, combined with humidity, wind speed, and sun affect how well our bodies cool themselves. Humidity influences how easily sweat can evaporate. High humidity (greater than 60%) makes sweat evaporation very difficult.

Clothing. Dark clothing absorbs heat. This can dramatically increase the chance of heat stress. Full body clothing, heavy pads, and helmets make cooling more difficult.

Sun exposure. Direct exposure to the sun with no available shade can increase your core body temperature.

Fitness level/acclimatization. Before exercising in the heat, athletes must be in good physical condition. They also need to give their bodies time to adjust to warmer temperatures.

Age. Children adjust to heat more slowly than adults. Their bodies are less effective at regulating body heat.

Dehydration. Even mild levels of dehydration (3-5% of body weight) can hurt athletic performance. If you have not had enough fluids, your body will not be able to effectively cool itself through sweat and evaporation.

Pre-activity hydration status. Athletes who start activities in an already dehydrated state are at greater risk for heat injury. Factors that can affect your pre-activity hydration status include inadequate rehydration after a previous exercise session, alcohol consumption, rapid weight loss regimes (i.e. wrestling), and fever, vomiting, or diarrhea.

High body fat. Athletes with high body fat have greater difficulty cooling themselves.

Fever. Anyone with a current or recent fever may be at increased risk.

Medications. Diuretics and stimulants may increase risk.

Sickle cell trait. Sickle cell trait or disease increases the risk for heat illness. This is especially true if good hydration and electrolytes are not maintained.

Mild Heat injury

Heat Cramps

SYMPTOMS:

Heat cramps are painful cramps in the stomach, arm, and leg muscles. These cramps are caused by not replacing salt and fluids during intense, prolonged exercise in the heat.

Treatment for Heat Cramps

Stop exercise activity

Gently stretch affected muscles

Drink cool water or an electrolyte solution (low in sugar)

For severe symptoms, treat as heat exhaustion (see below)

Moderate Heat Injury

Heat Syncope

Weakness, fatigue, and fainting are the chief symptoms of heat syncope. They are typically brought on by exercising hard in the heat. Too much salt and water are lost through perspiration, and are not replaced.

Heat syncope often occurs during the first 5 days of adjusting to a new activity. It also can occur in people taking diuretic medicines or those with pre-existing heat illness. Young athletes returning to play after time off for injury are also at greater risk for heat syncope.

Without treatment, heat syncope can put you at risk for heat stroke.

SYMPTOMS:

Heat Exhaustion (Water depletion)

Heat exhaustion is brought on by heavy sweating and results in extreme weight loss. As heat exhaustion sets in, perspiration decreases, and skin and body temperatures rise. Core body temperature typically rises to 104 degrees F.

Additional signs of heat exhaustion include excessive thirst, weakness, headache, and sometimes unconsciousness.

Heat Exhaustion (Salt depletion)

Common signs of heat exhaustion due to salt depletion are nausea and vomiting, frequent muscle cramps, and dizziness. Core body temperature is typically up to 104 degrees F.

You are at risk for this type of heat exhaustion when you do not sufficiently replace normal body salts and minerals. This can sometimes happen during prolonged exercise if water alone is used to replenish fluids. Body minerals, such as those in sports drinks, must also be replaced.

Electrolyte fluid drinks are an effective way to prevent this type of heat exhaustion.

Treatment for Heat Syncope and Heat Exhaustion

Move the person to a cool, shaded area

Remove tight clothing

Give fluids, if the athlete is conscious

Apply active cooling measures, such as a fan or ice towels, if the core temperature is elevated

Refer to a physician to assess the needs of fluid/electrolyte replacement and further medical attention, especially if nausea and vomiting are present

Sever Heat Injury

Heat Stroke

Heat stroke is the most severe form of heat injury. When suffering from heat stroke, your body cannot cool itself. This is an acute medical emergency.

Heat stroke is medically defined as core body temperature greater than 104 degrees F. Organ system failure can result from this high of a body temperature.

SYMPTOMS: Nausea, seizures, and confusion or disorientation often occur with heat stroke. Unconsciousness and coma are possible.

Heat stroke may occur with no preceding signs of heat injury. It can also occur as a progression from heat syncope and heat exhaustion. Again, this is a medical emergency.

Treatment of Heat Stroke

Call immediately for emergency services

Monitor core body temperature and lower it as quickly as possible

Decrease core body temperature through immersion in an ice bath

Remove as much clothing as possible

Apply ice packs to the armpits, groin, and neck areas

Continue cooling efforts until an emergency crew arrives

 The principles of the layer system.

The 3 layers system is a method that you have to understand to get results.  an efficacy way and to be able to adapt to any wether condition.

The goal of the 3 layer system is to use a minimum of clothes for a maximum of efficacity. What we are searching for is to be at a confortable TEMPERATURE in all circumstances (as well in the effort that in not moving).

There is an explication of the 3 layer system, layer by layer :

1rst layer : base layer

It is the layer that you have in confact of yyour skin. It is probably the one that is the more neglected whereas it plays a very important role. The base-layer function is to keep your skin dry in order to avoid the sensation of coldness. This is why that layer has to be “breathable”, it means it has to evacuate your swet so that this swet is no more in contact  with your skin. You have to understand that if your skin is humide or in contact with something humide you will have easyly cold. This is because the evaporation of the swet will cause your body to lose heat. Except in the desert where it can be important to have a base layer that retains the humidity in order to make your skin more fresh, I warn you to use a base-layer in coton because his weak point is that the coton absorb humidity and dries veyr  slowly. So the humidity stays in contact with your skin and makes you cold.

The materials that are used as base-layers hange a lot with the nwe technologies. You will often hear about “technical underwerar” to talk about base-underwerar. Underwear in synthetic fiber “breathable”, short or longs are used as base-layer. You will also find underwear in merinos woole that are warmer but that evacute less goo the swet, also dry less fast and are more fragile.

In few words : a good base-layer has to absorb easyli the humiity, evacuate the swet quicly and dry quickly

2nd layer : intermediate layer /layer of isolation / layer of warmth :

The intermediate layer is the secon layer , the one that goes above your base-layer. The goal of this layer is to isolate it means to retain the warmth of your body the better possible. The best way to do this is to prison the air around your body because the air is an excellent isolator. As for the sleeping bags, it is possible to utilise clothes with synthetic fibers (polar as exemple)  or with duvet (like some doudoune). The synthetic clothes polar type are the more used. Their advantage is to protect from the cold even when they are humie, to transfer the humidity to the external layer and to dry more fast compared to the one in duvet. But the duver isolate way more for the same weight.

In that layer, you have to favourise a layer that evacuate the wet, dries quickly and keep its isolation proprieties even when wet while you do an effort. When you stop, a warmer layer is good to put, to evacuate the swet accumulated while you did the effort.

In few wors : a good intermediar layer has to keep you warm, and to transferate the humidity to the eternal layer and to dry quickly.

3r layer : external layer / protection layer

The external layer is the one in contact with the external world. Its purpose is to protect of the wind and of the external humidity (rain, aw, snow etc), also to evacuate the swet and to protect from external aggressions (cut, fire, etc)

Before the coming of impermeable-breathing membranes as gore-tex (impermeble membrane hat allow to evacuate the swet), le external layer were étanches and provocates like a saune-effect, like with the sinple k-way. With that kind of external coat your swet is not evacuated, you and your clothes are humide and it is very possible that you will be cols at the stop position

The first goal of the eternal layrer is to be impermeable and wind-cutter to not allow the external humidity to come in and to avoid the warmth-looses because of the wind. Its second goal –as important- is to evacuate the swet It is useless to not let the rain come in if you are wet because of your swet (k-way)- If you do not have an eternal coat (lost in the jungle…) I enjoin you to be very careful at your efforts to swet a minimum by adjusting the intermediary layer and to ventilate at le level of you neck and armpits and so on.

In few words : a good external layer has to protect from the wind, the eternal humidity and to evacuate the internal humidity.

How to aapt the 3 layers system ? 

The 3 layer system is a concept that you have to understand. In many situation you won’t use 3 layers, maybe more, maybe less. It wont’t work if you put a t-shirt under a polar coat. 

Use more or less layers.

It is possible to cumulate a few intermedia layers between the base-layer and the external layer if the weather is very cold. If you multiply the amount of layers, do it only for this layer. It is useless to have two baye-layers or two eternal layers, you will be wet of swet.

Here are exeples when you DO NOT have to use 3 layers :

In the effort, in case of big wind and if it is not very cold you can combinate the base layer and the eternal layer. This way, you are not to col nor too warm and you swet is evacuated. The intermediary layer (if it is not a wind-cuter) lose its efficacity when there is wind. 

If the weather is nice and cold and if there is no wind you can wear alone a bese-layer and one or a few intermediar layers. This way your swet is well evacuated. With an eternal layer, even a breathable one, your swet is always less good evacuated than without !

Of course, the 3 layer system is available for the upper body but also for the lower body.

the principles of the layer system 

Our first shelter are our clothes- Our main enemy is moisture.

When wet, wind and cold combine, it is hypothermia

• Base layer = close skin . 1^st function : moisture. Takes sweat away, 
• Mid layer = traps air in the body
• Outer layer = Waterisolation ?

3 layers system is a method that you have to understand to get results,  an efficacy way and to be able to adapt to any wether condition.

The goal of the 3 layer system is to use a minimum of clothes for a maximum of efficacy. What we are searching for is to be at a comfortable TEMPERATURE in all circumstances (as well in the effort that in not moving).

There is an explication of the 3 layer system, layer by layer :

1rst layer : base layer

It is the layer that you have in contact of your skin. It is probably the one that is the more neglected whereas it plays a very important role. The base-layer function is to keep your skin dry in order to avoid the sensation of coldness. This is why that layer has to be “breathable”, it means it has to evacuate your sweat so that this sweat is no more in contact  with your skin. You have to understand that if your skin is humid or in contact with something humid you will be easily cold. This is because the evaporation of the sweat will cause your body to lose heat. Except in the desert where it can be important to have a base layer that retains the humidity in order to make your skin more fresh, I warn you to use a base-layer of cotton because its weak point is that the cotton absorb humidity and dries very  slowly. So the humidity stays in contact with your skin and makes you cold.

The materials that are used as base-layers depend a lot with the new technologies. You will often hear about “technical underwear” to talk about base- underwear. Underwear in synthetic fiber “breathable”, short or longs are used as base-layer. You will also find underwear in merinos wool that are warmer but that evacuate the sweat very well, also dries slower  and is more fragile.

In few words : a good base-layer has to absorb easily the humidity, evacuate the sweat quickly and dry quickly

2^nd layer : intermediate layer /layer of isolation / layer of warmth :

The intermediate layer is the second layer , the one that goes above your base-layer. The goal of this layer is to isolate it means to retain the warmth of your body the better possible. The best way to do this is to prison the air around your body because the air is an excellent isolator. As for the sleeping bags, it is possible to utilize clothes with synthetic fibers (polar as example)  or with duvet (like some duodena). The synthetic clothes polar type are the more used. Their advantage is to protect from the cold even when they are humid, to transfer the humidity to the external layer and to dry faster compared to the one in duvet. But the duvet isolate  much better.

In that layer, you have to favorites a layer that evacuate the wet, dries quickly and keep its isolation proprieties even when wet while you do an effort. When you stop, a warmer layer is good to put, to evacuate the swet accumulated while you did the effort.

In a few words : a good intermediary layer has to keep you warm, and to transfer the humidity to the eternal layer and to dry quickly.

3r layer : external layer / protection layer

The external layer is the one in contact with the external world. Its purpose is to protect of the wind and of the external humidity (rain, aw, snow etc), also to evacuate the sweat and to protect from external aggressions (cut, fire, etc)

Before the coming of impermeable-breathing membranes as gore-tex (impermeable membrane that allow to evacuate the sweat), the external layer were impermeable and provocative   a sauna - effect, like with the simple k-way ( a polyester rain coat). With that kind of external coat your sweet is not evacuated, you and your clothes are humid and it is very possible that you will be cold at a still position

The first goal of the external layer is to be impermeable and wind-cutter to not allow the external humidity to come in and to avoid the warmth-looses because of the wind. Its second goal –as important- is to evacuate the sweat It is useless to not let the rain come in if you are wet because of your sweat (k-way)- If you do not have an external coat (lost in the jungle…) I suggest you to be very careful at your efforts to sweat a minimum by adjusting the intermediary layer and to ventilate at the level of you neck and armpits and so on.

In few words : a good external layer has to protect from the wind, the eternal humidity and to evacuate the internal humidity.

How to adapt the 3 layer system ? 

The 3 layer system is a concept that you have to understand. In many situation you won’t use 3 layers, maybe more, maybe less. It wont’t work if you put a t-shirt under a polar coat. 

Use more or less layers.

It is possible to cumulate a few intermedia layers between the base-layer and the external layer if the weather is very cold. If you multiply the amount of layers, do it only for this layer. It is useless to have two base-layers or two eternal layers, you will be wet from your sweat.

Here are examples when you DO NOT have to use 3 layers :

• In the effort, in case of big wind and if it is not very cold you can combine the base layer and the eternal layer. This way, you are not to cool nor too warm and your sweat is evacuated. The intermediary layer (if it is not a wind-cuter) lose its efficacy when there is wind. 

If the weather is nice and cold and if there is no wind you can wear alone a base-layer and one or a few intermediary layers. This way your sweat is well evacuated. With an eternal layer, even a breathable one, your sweat is always less good evacuated than without !

Of course, the 3 layer system is available for the upper body but also for the lower body an also for the exermities (hands, feet, head)

 The proprieties of outdoor clothing, both natural and manmade

• Wool

 Not smelly, still warm when wet, does not spark/doesn’t catch fire, can be sometimes treated with waterproof/windproof, very mat/quiet = good camouflage to see animals, expensive maybe but last for a long time, heavy when wet, 

Belongs to any layer

• Cotton (Hemp) 

Cheap, light, spark resistant

Does not dry fast, does not move moisture away from the skin, cold when wet, does not dry quick, very unfriendly for nature

Outerlayer

• Silk

Drives moisture away from the skin, natural antibacterial, good to compress = good for travel, silk liner inside the sleeping bag can avoid you to wash all the bag

Expensive, not waterproof, it is bad when wet

Base layer

• Leather

Works well

Very cold, no isolation, expensive, not animal friendly

• Polyester (woolepolyester)

Cheap, light, drys moisture, waterproof

Stinks, if sparks it burns and sticks to the skin, bad sustainability

• Goretex

Some love, some hate

The moisture has no way to go

Modern shelter systems (hammocks, tarpaulins) using the correct knots

1. Timber hitch
2. Rolling hitch
3. Slippery figure of eight and round turn and two half hitches

• 1) Up – Under -  My eye is there – 3x in the other hole
• 2)  Up – down- around the pole – tight- triangle (all through) – triangle again – knot
• 3) 4 (pouce) – 2x in  the 4 (by going down) – knot direct (to the 4)  - hang to the knot and tirer

Natural history coming soon